Abstract:
Innovation in military technology symbolizes a shift in all of warfare away from the primary tactic of fighting being hand to hand combat to firearm combat, and this also symbolizes the dissociation of the enemy as a target from the enemy as a human being. European cinema can give testimony to the brutal reality that exists on the frontlines and at home that are a result of the dehumanization of opponents that are at a great distance due to technological advancements. Therefore, the perception of European wars in European films emphasize the total rejection of one’s humanity and its ideals in war which spirals into inconceivable cruelty. This study aims to investigate this notion which will be done through the analysis of cinematic tools such as characters, symbols, stylistic elements, and rejection beyond the plot in the films Vier von der Infanterie (Westfront 1918)[1] and Lacombe, Lucien[2]. Through this, the absurdity of current global conflict is revealed.
Introduction:
Throughout Europe in the Middle Ages, knights were integral parts of army and warfare (Abdo 6). Knights rode on horseback, were decorated with heavy metal armor and weaponry and fought in hand to hand combat on the battlefield, abiding by a code of chivalry (Abdo 4). These glorified soldiers fought until a definitive end, which can be seen in the example of the Norman Conquest in which Duke William of Normandy amassed forces of knights in order to seize control of the English throne which started with the battle of Hastings on October 14, 1066 (Garnett 2). The English army that fought on foot could not withstand the military force of these knights and thus the English collapse to the Normans is greatly attributed to knights (“Medieval: Warfare.” English Heritage). Despite being at the forefront of chivalrous and heroic military service throughout the Middle Ages, knighthood soon became obsolete because a change in warfare and weaponry proved the heavy armory and weapons of knights to be useless (Abdo 19). Historians believe that gunpowder was discovered by Chinese alchemists in 850 A.D, initially was utilized solely in fireworks, but then was incorporated in weaponry such as cannons, grenades and the first firearms; through trade gunpowder and gunpowder weaponry had extended from Asia to Europe in the 13th century (“Firearms.” History.com). Cannons and various ancestors of firearms continued to be developed and utilized in warfare in Europe. However, in 1425 there are reports of armor being penetrated by the use of a handgun, which conveys firearms being “capable of rudimentary precision” (Pollard 5). This innovation in military technology resulted in a shift in all of warfare away from the primary tactic of fighting being hand to hand combat to firearm combat, and this also symbolizes the dissociation of the enemy as a target from the enemy as a human being. This notion is supported by a study on the impacts of killing from hand to hand combat in military service that showed that killing someone by hand to hand combat was to a large extent more emotionally and psychologically taxing than killing by shooting a firearm (Jensen and Duncan 468). This study demonstrates the ostracization of humanity and its ideals and the chaos that then ensues in contemporary warfare due to military innovations that put opponents at greater distances.
World War I represents the shift in contemporary warfare and the disappearance of the traditional battlefield which puts opponents at even farther distances with the implementation of heavy artillery, machine guns, trench warfare, tanks, vehicles, airplanes, explosives, chemical weapons, radios, and aerial reconnaissance cameras (“The Technology of World War I.” National Air and Space Museum). Hence, the rejection of humanity and its ideals becomes an even more extensive issue leading to more brutal combat in war because of the created distance between opponents. Another facet of innovation in WWI is the implementation of cinema in war since it is the first calamity that was recorded on film (Stojanova 132). This advancement led to the first convergence of technology and propaganda in WWI (Stojanova 132). Propaganda highlights the notion that visibility equates to death which refers to visual technologies, like film in war, allowing for the viewing of targets in order to annihilate them effectively (Bousquet 2). This is because propaganda was highly choreographed films that created nationalism and banding together against other forces. However, due to the defining impacts WWI and WWII had on European nations, European cinema rejects fictional propaganda and furthermore rejects Hollywood cinematic style of being a “dream factory” (Elsaesser 17). This can be seen in European films about war after WWI and WWII such as the ones which followed Neo-Realism principles which highlight the fact “that surviving the war was often not a heroic act” (Deighan 5). European cinema is defined by its characteristics of being “window-on-the-world” or a “mirror-of-the-self” (Elsaesser 19). In this sense, European cinema can give testimony to the brutal reality that exists on the frontlines and at home that are a result of the dehumanization of opponents that are at a great distance due to technological advancements and the overarching theme of the rejection of humanity and its ideals in war. This idea finds contemporary significance in respect to the portrayal of the war between Russia and Ukraine. It has been reported that thousands of citizens in Ukraine are now training for lethal combat due to this conflict between Ukraine and Russia, thus portraying the rejection of humanity and its ideals in order for survival and combat in war (Arraf). Therefore, the perception of European wars in European films emphasize the total rejection of one’s humanity and its ideals in war which spirals into inconceivable cruelty.
Vier von der Infanterie (Westfront 1918)[3]: Rejection of Glorification and Heroism in World War I
George Wilhelm Pabst was a prominent and innovative filmmaker in the late silent film era (Parkinson). These innovations contributed to his great popularity in Germany during the Weimar Republic which was the democratic political government in Germany from 1919 to 1933 (“Weimar Republic” History.com). The Weimar Republic was characterized by economic chaos after World War I. However, the popularity of German films, including those of Pabst’s, monetarily benefitted the young government (Helmers 123). With the rise of the utilization of sound in the film industry, Germany was able to also undergo this transition between the years of 1929 and 1932 (Helmers 123). Pabst aided in ushering in the implementation of sound in German films, and, more pertinently, political discussion during this time in his 1930 film, Vier von der Infanterie, or Westfront 1918 (Helmers 121). This film depicts the life of German soldiers on the western front in World War I. It also highlights the unimaginable misery that was reality in the WWI trenches (Helmers 121). Pabst illustrates the rejection of glorification and heroism in World War I, which contributes to this overall rejection of one’s humanity and its ideals in war that characterizes European war films, through the characters, stylistic elements, and the rejection beyond the plot.
The characters within the film Westfront 1918 add to this feeling of the rejection of glorification and heroism in World War I. Throughout the entirety of the film, the names of the characters are unclear and are never explicitly stated, with the exception of a few soldiers, for example Karl (Pabst, Westfront 1918). Arguably, that makes these characters' experiences more universal and relatable for viewers of Westfront 1918, who at the time of release, may have fought or had family members who fought in WWI. German soldiers on the west front are also seen singing the patriotic “Dear Homeland” song (Pabst, Westfront 1918, 1:00:57). This is ironic because the soldiers are filthy, covered with fleas, and hungry for food. The image of the soldiers in this state completely contradicts the sentiments of the song. In the last big battle scene in the film one of the soldiers states “If we were heroes we would’ve been home a long time ago” (Pabst, Westfront 1918, 1:20). This realization that they are not on the right side and they do not believe in the cause they are fighting for completely illustrates this rejection of glorification. This is further depicted through the sufferings of soldiers that display difficulty in coping with the stress and trauma experienced on the frontlines which can be seen with the soldier screaming in the medical center after the final battle scene (Pabst, Westfront 1918, (1:30:39). This displays how the glorification and heroism of WWI is false because of how much suffering was endured due to the war. This suffering was not limited to the men in the trench. German soldier Karl visited home and discovered that his wife had been unfaithful in order to obtain food to survive (Pabst, Westfront 1918, 48:30). This moral corruption was due to the terrible circumstances in Germany, and these circumstances contradicted the nationalistic wave popularized on the frontlines. The examples of the characters mirror the sentiments of real WWI soldiers in the trenches in their writings and letters that have been collected; these writings display that “cynicism and anger inexorably replace the patriotic fervor of conformity” (Owen 3). Whether in the trenches or at home, the characters in Westfront 1918 display this rejection of glorification and heroism of WWI which contributes to the grounded feeling of European war movies that emphasizes the rejection of one’s humanity and its ideals in war.
The transition from silent films to talkies is confusing and not straightforward (Crafton 4). Pabst is a revered silent filmmaker, however Westfront 1918 is Pabst’s first talkie (Silver). Thus, it pioneers the emotive utilization of sound as a story-telling tool (Helmers 121). Through this film, Pabst is rejecting the viewer’s expectations of music and entertainment, as is the status quo in most silent films. Instead of solely music, the soundtrack consists of loud bombs and sounds of warfare (Pabst, Westfront 1918, 16:54). These incessant loud sounds create a sense of exhaustion for viewers. Since this is the genesis of the sound film era, the technologies that mix and record the audio tracks are not extremely developed, and the layering of soundtracks proved difficult (Helmers 125). Due to these difficulties, large periods of silence between scenes or audio tracks can be experienced (Pabst, Westfront 1918, 23:52). As a result, a stark contrast between sound and silence is emphasized. Between the loud bombs and sounds of warfare which create a sense of exhaustion, there is silence which promotes reflection about the content of the movie, thus highlighting the gravity of the subject. The silence disrupts the incessant sound, and, by extension, the audience.
The rejection of Pabst’s film extends beyond the plot and glorification and heroism in World War I; through the film we experience Pabst rejecting the “stab-in-the-back myth” that was a significant political conspiracy theory in Germany that was formulated during WWI but became more relevant in the interwar period (Houlihan 69). This theory claimed that Germany was martially superior to opponents in WWI, however it was due to the undermining of Germany at home by supposedly deceitful and self-interested groups such as the Jews and the Bolsheviks that Germany lost the war (Houlihan 69). This myth was a response to Germany’s inability to accept their loss of WWI and it resulted in the discrediting of the Weimar Republic in Germany (Houlihan 67). This became the foundation of the Germany’s Nazi Party ideology and their mission against these groups which ultimately led to their rise to power which was complete in 1933 (Unger-Alvi 562). Westfront 1918 was released in Germany in 1930, and thus its production and release coincided with the rise of the Nazi Party (Silver). Pabst is dismissing the stab-in-the-back myth through displaying that Germany truly was not martially superior and both sides endured great loss. With the unpatriotic sentiments of the soldiers in Westfront 1918, the nationalistic backing of the Nazi Party partially attributed to the stab-in-the-back myth is also rejected. Through this rejection of glorification and heroism in WWI, Pabst is able to reject contemporary political beliefs at the time of production, like the stab-in-the-back myth.
Through Pabst’s characters, utilization of sound, and rejection beyond the plot, the rejection of glorification and heroism in World War I becomes clear. Pabst does not glorify the horrific acts, and he recognizes the humanity that the soldiers suppress in order to fight for their country. The horrific acts are a consequence of WWI trench warfare, nationalism, and propaganda that puts opponents at greater distance physically and psychologically and thus soldiers are not faced with the reality of the enemy’s humanity. In a review of Westfront 1918, German film critic Siegfried Kracauer claims that because of the film and its aesthetic elements, the audience is profoundly moved and is unable to “remain merely an observer” (Helmers 127). We see that Pabst’s purpose is to demonstrate the horrors that occur due to war in order to deter Germany from any future wars. However this is not simply limited to Germany. These demonstrations of the tragedy of war are for all participating nations in war. Pabst’s Westfront 1918 can be seen as a film not as a source of attraction but as a source of perception and the start of a political conversation.
Lacombe, Lucien[4]: Rejection of the Self and Humanity in World War II
Louis Malle was a prominent French filmmaker in the French New Wave, a period of innovative filmmaking and cinema hysteria in French society in the 1950s and early 1960s (Neupert 41). The term, nouvelle vague, or “new wave,” was a popular phrase coined by French society in the 1950s in order to describe the post-World War II French generation that rejected traditional French institutions and were characterized by “an unusual sense of unity” (Neupert 43). This period of films was seen as new and exciting in comparison to traditional French cinema as they often explored contemporary issues and seemed more “spontaneous” due to their fast production and comparably low budgets (Neupert 41). Although Malle’s film, Lacombe, Lucien was released in 1974, it followed in the nouvelle vague style as it sparked conversation about contemporary issues in France (Hewitt 71). It takes place during the German occupation of France in World War II after Germany invaded France in 1940 and then implemented a German-French Armistice, a sovereign entity to govern France (Reide 27). During this time there was great turmoil in France between the French citizens that collaborated with the French Vichy government—the puppet state of Germany—and the French resistors, led by Charles de Gaulle (Christofferson & Christofferson 134). Through Lacombe, Lucien, Malle portrays the difficult state that the citizens of France, especially young men, find themselves in. Malle asserts the rejection of self and humanity in World War II, which contributes to this overall rejection of one’s humanity and its ideals in war that characterizes European war films, through the characters, symbols, and the rejection beyond the plot.
The characters within the film, Lacombe, Lucien, greatly contribute to the theme of rejection of the self and humanity. The prime example of this is the protagonist, Lucien. Lucien is a seventeen year old boy in rural France. In the film, Lucien is rejected from his home after his father is taken as a prisoner of war and his mother moves in with a farmer (Malle, Lacombe, Lucien, 16:44). Lucien is again rejected from joining the French resistance (Malle, Lacombe, Lucien, 15:24). Lucien then successfully joins the French collaborators, however he never truly fits in with their bourgeoisie way of life since he is from lower class, rural France (Hewitt 74). Lucien is rejecting himself and his humanity in the way that once he is rejected from the resistance, he leaves behind his initial, moral desire to combat the Nazis for his homeland. We see that Lucien’s subsequent crimes following his joining in the collaboration are “rooted in conformism and thoughtlessness rather than political activism” (Hewitt 73). Lucien is simply searching for an accepting community and purpose. Due to this reason, historian Paul Jankowski, argues that Lucien muddles the gap between the heroes and the villains (Hewitt 73). In this quest for community and purpose, Lucien loses himself and his humanity as his morals disappear, and he starts executing more heinous acts with the gestapo, an example being his torture of French resistors (Malle, Lacombe, Lucien, 1:59:10). In this sense he, himself rejects his humanity as he reverts into an animalistic state, hungry for power. The character France, a bourgeois, Jewish girl rejects herself and her humanity by having a romantic relationship with Lucien in order to protect herself (Malle, Lacombe, Lucien, 16:44). This is because she knows he is a collaborator with the Nazi’s and he is victimizing other people of her religion. Because her name is France, it is highlighting the nation’s identity of self-preservation in relation to “anti-Semitism, class difference, and betrayal” (Hewitt 73). Through these characters’ dismissal of their personal identity and values due to war, it displays the theme of rejection of one’s humanity and its ideals, hence adding to the recurring theme of the overall ostracization of humanity and its ideals.
The symbols within Lacombe, Lucien assert this rejection of the self and humanity. The main symbol being animals. Throughout the film, chickens and rabbits appear as Lucien is making moral decisions, for example when he attempts to join the French resistance (Malle, Lacombe, Lucien, 14:41). Lucien is a French peasant from rural France. He is a hunter and kills animals for food, displaying no remorse for these actions (Hewitt 75). As the plot progresses and Lucien joins the collaborators, this zero remorse for murder is exacerbated as his new hunting targets become French resisters (Hewitt 75). It appears as though Lucien enjoys the hunting of men—French men like him, but who just happen to be members of the resistance (Malle, Lacombe, Lucien, 1:59:10). This exhibits a rejection of the self and humanity because Lucien appears to be unfazed by the killing of men that belong to a group that he once wanted to join. He betrays and hunts this group solely for power and for no true purpose like for food. The symbol of the Great Dane that belongs to the members of the French collaborators, represents the bourgeoisie Vichy government (Hewitt 74). The true conflict highlighted through this regal canine is revealed when the canine allows the young Jewish girl, France, who is also a member of high society to pet him (Malle, Lacombe, Lucien, 1:25:29). The symbol for the Vichy government fraternizing with Jewish people represents a rejection of self because the Vichy government is built on an anti-Semitic foundation. This represents France’s national identity and the strifes regarding anti-Semitism, class difference, and patriotism. The symbols within Lacombe, Lucien displaying a rejection of the self and humanity reveal the rejecting of humanity and its ideals in European war films because of the dismissal of morals, personal background, and group values.
Malle attempts to reject a notion in French society that is beyond the plot. After the second world war, most people in France believed that their position during the French occupation was one of resistance (Christofferson & Christofferson 134). Additionally, a popular belief was that of the very few collaborators, most of them were very high class individuals in France (Hewitt 74). Therefore, following WWII making films about questioning the strength of the French resistance or even the “complexity of survival in wartime” was an endeavor most filmmakers avoided due to the immediate mythology surrounding the Resistance that was produced after the war (Deighan 26). Through this film, Malle revisits and attempts to correct the skewed collective memory of French people’s innocence during WWII because in reality, many French collaborated with the Nazi regime (Hewitt 72). Malle, through the character Lucien, displayed that a non-bourgeoisie citizen could join the collaborators with ease, and that most people did not have a passionate political agenda. Malle shocked audiences by asserting that most people joined either the resistance or the Nazis due to circumstance. Furthermore, Lacombe, Lucien displayed that even the notion that the French were trying to survive the war by doing whatever they had to was a myth, Malle displayed that many French “actively participated in the murder of Jews, communists, and other resistors” (Deighan 132). Through this rejection or France’s innocent position during WWII, we see a rejection of the self and humanity, as French people betray their nation and French brothers and sisters by joining the fascist party. This contributes greatly to the overall theme of the rejection of humanity and its ideals in European war films and European society during war.
Through the characters, symbols, and rejection-beyond-the-plot in Lacombe, Lucien, the rejection of self and humanity becomes clear. Historian Henry Rousso refers to the collective memory of France in World War II as a “broken mirror” (O’Riley 278). Through Lacombe, Lucien, Malle is adding to the conversation about France in WWII and more specifically the underlying problem of anti-semitism and classism in France which was a large political conversation in the 1970s (Deighan 76). Although the enemies were not physically put at a greater distance in France during WWII because of the German occupation, the reality of who was truly the enemy was muddled due to conflicts of power, wealth, and anti-Semitic sentiments. In this sense, the theme of the perception of European wars in European films emphasizing the total rejection of one’s humanity and its ideals in war which spirals into inconceivable cruelty can be viewed in this film.
Conclusion:
In the films, Infanterie, or Westfront 1918 and Lacombe, Lucien, the perception of European wars in European films asserting the ostracization of one’s humanity and its ideals in war which leads to mass casualties and suffering is communicated through the rejection of glorification and heroism in World War I and the rejection of self and humanity in World War II. Through these films depicting the dangerous, unnecessary conflicts between nations and brothers, and subsequently the numerous sacrifices made due to them, one truly recognizes the absurdity of war. These absurdities were brought on by the increased physical and mental distance of the opponents due to advancements in military technologies which results in the dissociation of one's enemy as a human to just being a target. There were many martial technological advancements during WWI and WWII, and these are continuing today (Bousquet 5). This may be the cause of continued conflicts, such as the Russian-Ukrainian War today. It has been reported that there are an estimated 200,000 casualties so far due to this war (“Ukraine War: US Estimates 200,000 Military Casualties on All Sides”). Due to filmmakers such as Pabst and Malle, we know the absurdity of war because it leads to the rejection of one's humanity and its ideals, hence resulting in mass annihilation. Therefore, it is our duty to take action to eliminate the evil of global violence and war and to promote peace and fraternity—acting with universal codes of chivalry and respect, like medieval knights.
[1] Pabst, George Wilhelm, director. Westfront 1918. Nero-Film AG Production Company, 1930.
[2] Malle, Louis, et al. Lacombe, Lucien. Criterion Collection, 2006.
[3] Pabst, George Wilhelm, director. Westfront 1918. Nero-Film AG Production Company, 1930.
[4] Malle, Louis, et al. Lacombe, Lucien. Criterion Collection, 2006.
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